The Colosseum or Coliseum,
originally known as the Flavian Amphitheater
(Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian:
Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is
a giant amphitheater in the center
of the city of Rome. Originally capable
of seating 45,000 to 50,000 spectators,
it was used for gladiatorial contests
and public spectacles. It was built
on a site just east of the Roman Forum,
with construction starting between
70 and 72 C.E. under the emperor Vespasian.
The amphitheater, the largest ever
built in the Roman Empire, was completed
in 80 C.E. under Titus, with further
modifications being made during Domitian's
reign
The Colosseum remained
in use for nearly 500 years, with
the last recorded games being held
there as late as the sixth century—well
after the traditional date of the
fall of Rome in 476. As well as the
traditional gladiatorial games, many
other public spectacles were held
there, such as mock sea battles, animal
hunts, executions, re-enactments of
famous battles, and dramas based on
classical mythology. The building
eventually ceased to be used for entertainment
in the early medieval era. It was
later reused for such varied purposes
as housing, workshops, quarters for
a religious order, a fortress, a quarry,
and a Christian shrine.
Although it is now in
a severely ruined condition due to
damage caused by earthquakes and stone-robbers,
the Colosseum has long been seen as
an iconic symbol of Imperial Rome
and is one of the finest surviving
examples of Roman architecture. It
is one of modern Rome's most popular
tourist attractions and still has
close connections with the Roman Catholic
Church. The Pope leads a torchlit
"Way of the Cross" procession
to the amphitheater every Good Friday.
Ancient
Construction of the Colosseum began
under the rule of the Emperor Vespasian
around 70 to 72 C.E. The site chosen
was a flat area on the floor of a
low valley between the Caelian, Esquiline,
and Palatine Hills, through which
a canalized stream ran.
The area was devastated
by the Great Fire of Rome in 64 C.E.,
following which Nero added much to
his personal domain. He built the
grandiose Domus Aurea on the site,
in front of which he created an artificial
lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens,
and porticoes. The still-existing
Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended
to supply water to the area, and the
gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was
set up nearby at the entrance to the
Domus Aurea.
The area was transformed
under the Emperor Vespasian and his
successors. Although the Colossus
was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea
was torn down. The lake was filled
in and the land reused as the location
for the new Flavian Amphitheater,
known more popularly today as the
Colossuem. Gladiatorial schools and
other support buildings were constructed
nearby within the former grounds of
the Domus Aurea. According to a reconstructed
inscription found on the site: "The
emperor Vespasian ordered this new
amphitheater to be erected from his
general's share of the booty."
This is thought to refer to the vast
quantity of treasure seized by the
Romans following their victory in
the Jewish Revolt, in 70 C.E.
The Colosseum can be
thus interpreted as a great triumphal
monument built in the Roman tradition
of celebrating great victories. Vespasian's
decision to build the Colosseum on
the site of Nero's lake can also be
seen as a populist gesture—in
effect, returning to the people an
area of the city which Nero had appropriated
for his own use. It was built near
the Roman Forum. By the second century
B.C.E. the area was densely inhabited.
The Colosseum had been
completed up to the third story by
the time of Vespasian's death in 79
C.E. The top level was finished and
the building inaugurated by his son,
Titus, in 80 C.E. The historian Dio
Cassius recounts that 11,000 wild
animals were killed in gladiatorial
contests during the 100 days of celebration
which inaugurated the amphitheater.
The building was remodeled further
under Vespasian's younger son, the
newly designated Emperor Domitian,
who constructed the hypogeum, a series
of underground tunnels used to house
animals and slaves. He also added
a gallery to the top of the Colosseum
to increase its seating capacity.
In 217 C.E., the Colosseum
was badly damaged by a major fire
(caused by lightning, according to
Dio Cassius), which destroyed the
wooden, upper levels of the amphitheater's
interior. It was not fully repaired
until about 240 C.E. and underwent
further repairs around 250 and again
in 320. An inscription records the
restoration of various parts of the
Colosseum under Theodosius II and
Valentinian III (reigned 425 to 450
C.E.), possibly to repair damage caused
by an earthquake in 443 C.E. More
work followed in 484 and 508. The
arena continued to be used for contests
well into the sixth century, with
gladiatorial fights last mentioned
around 435 C.E. Animal hunts continued
until at least 523 C.E.
Medieval
The Colosseum underwent several radical
changes of use during the medieval
period. By the late sixth century
a small church had been built into
the structure of the amphitheater,
though this apparently did not confer
any particular religious significance
on the building as a whole. The arena
was converted into a cemetery. The
numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades
under the seating were converted into
housing and workshops, and are recorded
as still being rented out as late
as the twelfth century. Around 1200,
the Frangipani family took over the
Colosseum and fortified it, apparently
using it as a castle.
Severe damage was inflicted
on the Colosseum by the great earthquake
of 1349, causing the outer south side
to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone
was reused to build palaces, churches,
hospitals, and other buildings elsewhere
in Rome. The Order of Saint Salvator
moved into the northern third of the
Colosseum in the 1360s, and continued
to inhabit it until as late as the
early nineteenth century. In 1874,
a religious dwelling at the Colosseum
was no longer permitted when the structure
was declared an archaeological and
historic site by the Italian government.
The interior of the
amphitheater was extensively stripped
of stone, which was reused elsewhere,
or (in the case of the marble facade)
was burned to make quicklime. The
bronze clamps which held the stonework
together were pried or hacked out
of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks
which still scar the building today.
Modern
During the sixteenth century and seventeenth
century, Church officials sought a
productive role for the vast derelict
hulk of the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus
V (1585–1590) planned to turn
the building into a wool factory to
provide employment for Rome's prostitutes,
though this proposal fell through
with his premature death. In 1671,
Cardinal Palluzzo Altieri used his
powerful church positions, gained
by being related to Pope Clement X,
to authorize the Colosseum's use for
bullfights. Although Cardinal of Ravenna
at the time, Altieri was in the papal-appointed
positions of Cardinal Nephew of the
Pope and Manager of Affairs, a position
even higher than Secretary of State
at the Vatican. However, a public
outcry over the "desecration"
of the Colosseum caused the idea to
be hastily abandoned when the Pope
rescinded Altieri's bullfight order.
In 1749, Pope Benedict
XIV endorsed as official Church policy
the view that the Colosseum was a
sacred site where early Christians
had been martyred. He forbade the
use of the Colosseum as a quarry and
consecrated the building to the Passion
of Christ and installed Stations of
the Cross, declaring it sanctified
by the blood of the Christian martyrs
who perished there. Later popes initiated
various stabilization and restoration
projects, removing the extensive vegetation
which had overgrown the structure
and threatened to damage it further.
The facade was reinforced with triangular
brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and
the interior was repaired in 1831,
1846, and in the 1930s. The arena
substructure was partly excavated
in 1810–1814, and 1874, and
was fully exposed under Mussolini
in the 1930s.
The Colosseum is today
one of Rome's most popular tourist
attractions, receiving millions of
visitors annually. The effects of
pollution and general deterioration
over time prompted a major restoration
program carried out between 1993 and
2000, at a cost of $19.3 million.
In recent years, it has become a symbol
of the international campaign against
capital punishment, which was abolished
in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death
penalty demonstrations took place
in front of the Colosseum in 2000.
Since that time, as a gesture against
the death penalty, the local authorities
change the color of the Colosseum's
night-time illumination from white
to gold whenever a person condemned
to the death penalty anywhere in the
world has their sentence commuted
or is released.
Due to the ruined state
of the interior, it is impractical
to use the Colosseum to host large
events; only a few hundred spectators
can be accommodated in temporary seating.
However, much larger concerts have
been held just outside, using the
Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers
who have played at the Colosseum in
recent years have included Ray Charles,
Paul McCartney, and Elton John.
Uses
The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial
shows as well as a variety of other
events. These shows, called munera,
were staged by individuals rather
than the state. They had a strong
religious element but were also demonstrations
of power and family prestige, and
were immensely popular with the population.
Another popular type
of show was the animal hunt, or venatio.
This utilized a great variety of wild
beasts, mainly imported from Africa,
and included creatures such as rhinoceros,
hippos, elephants, giraffes, lions,
panthers, leopards, crocodiles, and
ostriches. Battles and hunts were
often staged amid elaborate sets with
movable trees and buildings. Such
events were occasionally on a huge
scale. Trajan is said to have celebrated
his victories in Dacia in 107 C.E.
with contests involving 11,000 animals
and 10,000 gladiators over the course
of 123 days.
During the early days
of the Colosseum, ancient writers
recorded that the building was used
for naumachiae—more properly
known as navalia proelia—or
simulated sea battles. Accounts of
the inaugural games held by Titus
in 80 C.E. describe it being filled
with water for a display of specially
trained swimming horses and bulls.
There is also an account of a re-enactment
of a famous sea battle between the
Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the
Corinthians. This has been the subject
of some debate among historians. Although
providing the water would not have
been a problem, it is unclear how
the arena could have been waterproofed,
nor would there have been space in
the arena for the warships to move
around. It has been suggested that
the reports either have the location
wrong, or that the Colosseum originally
featured a wide, floodable channel
down its central axis.
Sylvae, or recreations
of natural scenes, were also held
in the arena. Painters, technicians,
and architects would construct a simulation
of a forest with real trees and bushes
planted in the arena's floor. Animals
would be introduced to populate the
scene for the delight of the crowd.
Such scenes might be used simply to
display a natural environment for
the urban population, or could otherwise
be used as the backdrop for hunts
or dramas depicting episodes from
mythology. They were also occasionally
used for executions in which the hero
of the story—played by a condemned
person—was killed in one of
various gruesome but mythologically
authentic ways, such as being mauled
by beasts or burned to death.
Christians
and the Colosseum
The Colosseum has long been regarded
as having been the scene of numerous
martyrdoms of early Christians. However,
this belief appears to have arisen
only around the sixteenth century.
Roman and early medieval accounts
refer to Christians being martyred
in various vaguely described locations
in Rome (in "the amphitheater,"
in "the arena," etc.). Saint
Telemachus, for instance, is often
said to have died in the Colosseum,
but Theodoret's account of his death
merely states that it happened "in
the stadium" (eis to stadio).
Similarly, the death of Saint Ignatius
of Antioch is recorded as having been
in "the arena," without
specifying which arena. There were,
in fact, numerous stadia, amphitheaters,
and circuses in Rome.
In the Middle Ages,
the Colosseum was not regarded as
a sacred site. Its use as a fortress
and then a quarry demonstrates how
little spiritual importance was attached
to it, at a time when sites associated
with martyrs were highly venerated.
It was not included in the itineraries
compiled for the use of pilgrims nor
in works such as the twelfth century
Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels
of the City of Rome"), which
claims the Circus Flaminius—but
not the Colosseum—as the site
of martyrdoms.
In the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, however, the
Colosseum came to be regarded as a
Christian site. Pope Pius V (1566-1572)
is said to have recommended that pilgrims
gather sand from the arena of the
Colosseum to serve as a relic, on
the grounds that it was impregnated
with the blood of martyrs. This seems
to have been a minority view until
it was popularized nearly a century
later by Fioravante Martinelli, who
listed the Colosseum at the head of
a list of places sacred to the martyrs
in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra.
At the insistence of
St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Pope
Benedict XIV (1740-1758) forbade the
ongoing quarrying of the Colosseum
and erected Stations of the Cross
around the interior of the arena,
which remained until February 1874.
St. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the
later years of his life within the
walls of the Colosseum, living on
alms, prior to his death in 1783.
Several nineteenth century popes funded
repair and restoration work on the
Colosseum, and it still retains a
Christian connection today. Crosses
stand in several points around the
arena and every Good Friday the Pope
leads a procession to the amphitheater
in memory of Christian martyrs.
Name
The Colosseum's name has long been
believed to be derived from a colossal
statue of Nero that stood nearby.
This statue was later remodeled by
Nero's successors into the likeness
of Helios (Sol) or Apollo, the sun
god, by adding the appropriate solar
crown. Nero's head was also replaced
several times and substituted with
the heads of succeeding emperors.
Despite its pagan links, the statue
remained standing well into the medieval
era and was credited with magical
powers. It came to be seen as an iconic
symbol of the permanence of Rome.
In the eighth century,
the Venerable Bede (c. 672–735)
wrote a famous epigram celebrating
the symbolic significance of the statue:
Quandiu stabit coliseus, stabit et
Roma; quando cadit coliseus, cadet
et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet
et mundus ("As long as the Colossus
stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus
falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome
falls, so falls the world").[3]
This is often mistranslated to refer
to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus
(as in, for instance, Byron's poem
Childe Harold's Pilgrimage). However,
at the time that Bede wrote, the masculine
noun coliseus was applied to the statue
rather than to what was then still
known as the Flavian amphitheater.
The Colossus did eventually
fall, having probably been pulled
down to reuse its bronze. By the year
1000 C.E., the name "Colosseum"
(a neuter noun) had been coined to
refer to the amphitheater. The statue
itself was largely forgotten and only
its base survived, situated between
the Colosseum and the nearby Temple
of Roma and Venus.
Physical description
Exterior
The Colosseum measures 157 feet high,
615 feet long, and 510 feet wide,
with a base area of six acres. Unlike
earlier amphitheaters, it was an entirely
free-standing structure, constructed
on flat ground rather than being built
into an existing hillside or natural
depression. Its outer wall originally
measured 1,788 feet, and is estimated
to have required over 3.5 million
cubic feet of travertine stone held
together by 300 tons of iron clamps.
However, it has suffered extensive
damage over the centuries, with large
segments having collapsed following
earthquakes. The north side of the
perimeter wall is still standing;
the distinctive triangular brick wedges
at each end are modern additions,
having been constructed in the early
nineteenth century to shore up the
wall. The remainder of the present-day
exterior of the Colosseum is in fact
the original interior wall.
The surviving part of
the outer wall's monumental façade
comprises three stories of superimposed
arcades surmounted by a podium on
which stands a tall attic, both of
which are pierced by windows interspersed
at regular intervals. The arcades
are framed by half-columns of the
Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders,
while the attic is decorated with
Corinthian pilasters.[4] Each of the
arches in the second- and third-floor
arcades framed statues, probably honoring
divinities and other figures from
Classical mythology.
Original façade
of the Colosseum.The Colosseum's huge
crowd capacity made it essential that
the venue could be filled or evacuated
quickly. Its architects adopted solutions
very similar to those used in modern
stadiums to deal with the same problem.
The amphitheater was ringed by 80
entrances at ground level, 76 of which
were used by ordinary spectators.
Each entrance and exit was numbered,
as was each staircase. The northern
main entrance was reserved for the
Roman Emperor and his aides, while
the other three axial entrances were
most likely used by the elite. All
four axial entrances were richly decorated
with painted stucco reliefs, of which
fragments survive. Many of the original
outer entrances have disappeared with
the collapse of the perimeter wall,
but entrances XXIII to LIV still survive.
Spectators were given
tickets in the form of numbered pottery
shards, which directed them to the
appropriate section and row. They
accessed their seats via vomitoria
(singular vomitorium), passageways
that opened into a tier of seats from
below or behind. These quickly dispersed
people into their seats and, upon
conclusion of the event or in an emergency
evacuation, could permit their exit
within only a few minutes. The name
vomitoria derived from the Latin word
for a rapid discharge, from which
English derives the word vomit.
Interior seating
According to the Codex-Calendar of
354 C.E., the Colosseum could accommodate
87,000 people, although modern estimates
put the figure at around 50,000. They
were seated in a tiered arrangement
that reflected the rigidly stratified
nature of Roman society. Special boxes
were provided at the north and south
ends respectively for the Emperor
and the Vestal Virgins, providing
the best views of the arena. Flanking
them at the same level was a broad
platform or podium for the senatorial
class, who were allowed to bring their
own chairs. The names of some fifth
century senators can still be seen
carved into the stonework, presumably
reserving areas for their use.
The tier above the senators,
known as the maenianum primum, was
occupied by the non-senatorial noble
class or knights (equites). The next
level up, the maenianum secundum,
was originally reserved for ordinary
Roman citizens (plebians) and was
divided into two sections. The lower
part (the immum) was for wealthy citizens,
while the upper part (the summum)
was for poor citizens. Specific sectors
were provided for other social groups:
For instance, boys with their tutors,
soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries,
scribes, heralds, priests, and so
on. Stone (and later marble) seating
was provided for the citizens and
nobles, who presumably would have
brought their own cushions with them.
Inscriptions identified the areas
reserved for specific groups.
Another level, the maenianum
secundum in legneis, was added at
the very top of the building during
the reign of Domitian. This comprised
a gallery for the common poor, slaves,
and women. It would have been either
standing room only, or would have
had very steep, wooden benches. Some
groups were banned altogether from
the Colosseum, notably gravediggers,
actors, and former gladiators.
Arena and hypogeum
The wooden walkway is a modern structure.
Detail of the hypogeumThe arena itself
measured 272 feet by 157 feet. It
was comprised of a wooden floor covered
by sand (the Latin word for sand is
harena or arena), covering an elaborate
underground structure called the hypogeum
(literally meaning "underground").
Little now remains of the original
arena floor, but the hypogeum is still
clearly visible. It consisted of a
two-level, subterranean network of
tunnels and cages beneath the arena
where gladiators and animals were
held before contests began. Eighty
vertical shafts provided instant access
to the arena for caged animals and
scenery pieces concealed underneath;
larger hinged platforms, called hegmata,
provided access for elephants and
the like. It was restructured on numerous
occasions; at least 12 different phases
of construction can be seen.
The hypogeum was connected
by underground tunnels to a number
of points outside the Colosseum. Animals
and performers were brought through
the tunnel from nearby stables, with
the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus
Magnus to the east also being connected
by tunnels. Separate tunnels were
provided for the Emperor and the Vestal
Virgins to permit them to enter and
exit the Colosseum without needing
to pass through the crowds.
Substantial quantities
of machinery also existed in the hypogeum.
Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered
scenery and props, as well as lifting
caged animals to the surface for release.
There is evidence for the existence
of major hydraulic mechanisms and
according to ancient accounts, it
was possible to flood the arena rapidly,
presumably via a connection to a nearby
aqueduct.
Supporting
buildings
The Colosseum and its activities supported
a substantial industry in the area.
In addition to the amphitheater itself,
many other buildings nearby were linked
to the games. Immediately to the east
are the remains of the Ludus Magnus,
a training school for gladiators.
This was connected to the Colosseum
by an underground passage, to allow
easy access for the gladiators. The
Ludus Magnus had its own miniature
training arena, which was itself a
popular attraction for Roman spectators.
Other training schools were in the
same area, including the Ludus Matutinus
(Morning School), where fighters of
animals were trained, plus the Dacian
and Gallic Schools.
Also nearby were the
Armamentarium, comprising an armory
to store weapons; the Summum Choragium,
where machinery was stored; the Sanitarium,
which had facilities to treat wounded
gladiators; and the Spoliarium, where
bodies of dead gladiators were stripped
of their armor and disposed of.
Around the perimeter
of the Colosseum, at a distance of
59 feet from the perimeter, was a
series of tall stone posts, with five
remaining on the eastern side. Various
explanations have been advanced for
their presence; they may have been
a religious boundary, or an outer
boundary for ticket checks, or an
anchor for the velarium, or awning.[2]
Colosseum, Rome's Arena
of Death (an excerpt from a BBC documentary)
